There are several types of stocks. Although they are all made from a combination of bones, vegetables, seasons and liquids, each type uses specific procedures to give it distinctive characteristics. White stock is made by simmering chicken, veal or beef bones in water with vegetables and seasonings. The stock remains relatively colorless during the cooking process. Brown stock is made from chicken, veal, beef or game bones and vegetables, all of which are caramelized before being simmered in water with seasonings. The stock has a rich, dark color. Fish stock and fumet are made by slowly cooking fish bones of crustacean shells an vegetables without coloring them, then simmering them in water with seasonings for a short time. For a fumet, wine and lemon juice are also added. The resulting stock or fumet is a strongly flavored, relatively colorless liquid. Court bouillon is made by simmering vegetables and seasonings in water and an acidic liquid such as vinegar or wine. It is used to poach fish or vegetables. Ingredients The basic ingredients of any stock are bones, a vegetable mixture known as a mirepoix, seasonings and water. Bones Bones are the most important ingredients; they add flavor, richness and color to the stock. Traditional, the kitchen or butcher shop saved the day's bones to make stock. But because many meats and poultry items are now purchased. Pre-cut or portioned, food service operations often purchase bones specifically for stock making. Different bones release their flavor at different rates. Even though the bones are cut into 3- to 4-inch (8- to 10-cm) pieces, a stock made entirely of beef and/or veal bones requires six to eight hours of cooking time, while a stock made entirely from chicken bones requires only five to six hours. Beef and Veal Bones The best bones for beef and veal stock are from younger animals. They contain a higher percentage of cartilage and other connective tissue than do bones from more mature animals. Connective tissue has a high collagen content. Through the cooking process, the collagen is converted into gelatin and water. The gelatin adds richness and body to the finished stock. The best beef and veal bones are back, neck and shank bones, as they have high collagen contents. Beef and veal bones should be cut with a meat saw into small pieces. Approximately 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 cm) long so that they can release as much flavor as possible while the stock cooks. Chicken Bones The best bones for chicken stock are the neck and back. If a whole chicken carcass is used, it can be cut up for easier handling. Fish Bones The best bones for fish stock are from lean fish such as sole, flounder, whiting or turbot. Bones from fatty fish (for example, salmon, tuna and swordfish) do not produce good stock because of their high fat content and distinctive flavors. The entire fish carcass can be used, but it should be cut up with a cleaver or heavy knife for easy handling and even extraction of flavors. After cutting, the pieces should be rinsed in cold water to remove blood, loose scales and other impurities. Other Bones Lamb, turkey, game and ham bones can also be used for white or brown socks. Although mixing bones is generally acceptable, be careful of blending strongly flavored bones, such as those from lamb or game, with beef, veal or chicken bones. The former's strong flavors may not be appropriate or desirable in the finished product. Mirepoix A mirepoix is a mixture of onions, carrots and celery added to a stock to enhance its flavor and aroma. Although chefs differ on the ratio of vegetables, generally a mixture off 50% onions, 25% carrots and 25% celery, by weight, is used. (Unless otherwise noted, any reference to mirepoix in this book refers to this ratio.) For a brown stock, onion skins may be used to add color. It is no necessary to peel the carrots or celery because flavor, not aesthetics, is important. The size in which the mirepoix is chopped is determined by the stock's cooking time: the shorter the cooking time, the smaller the vegetables must be chopped to ensure that all possible flavor is extracted. For white or brown stocks make from beef or veal bones, the vegetables should be coarsely chopped into large, 1-to 2-inch (2 1/2 - to 5-cm) pieces. For chicken and fish stocks, the vegetables should be more finely chopped into ½ -inch (1 1/4-cm) pieces. A white mirepoix is made by replacing the carrots in a standard mirepoix with parsnips and adding mushrooms and leeks. Some chefs prefer to use a white mirepoix when making a white stock, as it produces a lighter product. Sometimes parsnips, mushrooms and leeks are added to a standard mirepoix for additional flavors. Seasonings Principal stock seasonings are peppercorns, bay leaves, thyme, parsley stems, and optionally, garlic. These seasonings generally can be left whole. A stock is cooked long enough for all of their flavors to be extracted so there is no reason to chop or grind them. Seasonings generally are added to the stock at the start of cooking. Some chefs do not add seasonings to beef or veal stock until midway through the cooking process, however, because of the extended cooking times seasonings can be added as a sachet d"epices or a bouquet garni. Salt, an otherwise important seasoning is not added to stock. Because a stock has a variety of uses, it is impossible for the chef to know how much salt to add when preparing it. If for example, the stock was seasoned to taste with salt, the chef could not reduce it later; salt is not lost through reduction, and the concentrated product would taste too salty. Similarly, seasoning through stock to taste with salt could prevent the chef from adding other ingredient that are high in salt when finishing a recipe. Unlike many seasonings whose flavors must be incorporated into a product through lengthy cooking periods, salt can be added at any time during the cooking process with the same effect. Principles of stock making The following principles apply to all stocks. You should follow them in order to achieve the highest-quality stocks possible. A. Start the Stock in Cold Water The ingredients should always be covered with cold water. When bones are covered with cold water, blood and other impurities dissolve. As the water heats, the impurities coagulate and rise to the surface, where they can be removed easily by skimming. If the bones were covered with a hot water, the impurities would coagulate more quickly and remain dispersed in the stock without rising to the top, making the stock cloudy. If the water level falls below the bones during cooking, add water to cover them. Flavor cannot be extracted from bones not under water, and bones exposed to the air will darken and discolor a white stock. B. Simmer the Stock Gently The stock should be brought to a boil and then reduced to a simmer, a temperature of approximately 185ºF (85ºC). While simmering, the ingredients release their flavors into the liquid. If kept at a simmer, the liquid will remain clear as it reduces and a stock develops. Never boil a stock for any length of time. Rapid boiling of stock, even for a few minutes, causes impurities and fats to blend with the liquid, making it cloudy. C. Skim the Stock Frequently A stock should be skimmed often to remove the fat and impurities that rise to the surface during cooking. If they are not removed, they may make the stock cloudy. D. Strain the Stock Carefully Once a stock finishes cooking, the liquid must be separated from the bones, vegetables and other solid ingredients. In order to keep the liquid clear, it is important not to disturb the solid ingredients when removing the liquid. This is easily accomplished if the stock is cooked in a steam kettle or stockpot with a spigot at the bottom. If the stock is cooked in a standard stockpot, to strain it: Skim as much fat and as many impurities from the surface as possible before removing the stockpot from the heat. After removing the pot from the heat, carefully ladle the stock from the pot without stirring it. Strain the stock through a china cap lined with several layers of cheesecloth. E. Cool the Stock Quickly Most stocks are prepared in large quantities, cooled and held for later use. Great care must be taken when cooling a stock to prevent food-borne illnesses or souring. A stock can be cooled quickly and safely with the following procedure: Keep the stock in a metal container. A plastic container insulates the stock and delays cooling. Vent the stockpot in an empty sink by placing it on blocks or a rack. This allows water to circulate on all sides and below the pot when the Sink is filled with water. Install an overflow pipe in the drain, and fill the sink with cold water or a combination of cold water and ice. Make sure that the eight of the stockpot is adequate to keep it from tipping over. Let cold water run into the sink and drain out the overflow pipe. Stir the stock frequently to facilitate even, quick cooling. F. Store the Stock Properly Once the stock is cooled, transfer it to a sanitized covered container (either plastic or metal) and store it in the refrigerator. As the stock chills, fat rises to its surface and solidifies. If left intact, this layer of fat helps preserve the stock. Stocks can be stored for up to one week under refrigeration or frozen for several months. G. Degrease the Stock Degreasing a stock is simple: when a stock is refrigerated, fat rises to its surface, hardens and is easily lifted of scraped away before the stock is reheated. White Stock A white or neutral stock may be made from beef, veal or chicken bones. The finished stock should have a good flavor, good clarity, high gelatin content and little or no color. Veal bones are most often used, but any combination of beef, veal or chicken bones may be used. Brown Stocks A brown stock is made from chicken, veal, beef or game bones. The finished stock should have a good flavor, rich dark brown color, good body and high gelatin content. The primary differences between a brown stock and a white stock are that for a brown stock, the bones and mirepoix are caramelized before being simmered and a tomato product is added. These extra steps provide the finished stock with a rich dark color and a more intense flavor. Fish Stock and Fish Fumet A fish stock and a fish fumet are similar and can be used interchangeably in most recipes. Both are clear with a pronounced fish flavor and very light body. A fumet, however, is more strongly flavored and aromatic. The fish bones and crustacean shells used to make a fish stock or fumet should be washed but never blanched because blanching removes too much flavor. Because of the size and structure of fish bones and crustacean shells, stocks and fumets made from them require much less cooking time than even a chicken stock; 30 to 45 minutes is usually sufficient to extract full flavor. Mirepoix or other vegetables should be cut small so that all of their flavors can be extracted during the short cooking time. The procedure for making a fish stock is very similar to that for making a white stock. A fish stock is sometimes used to make a fish fumet; if so, the resulting product is very strongly flavored. A fish fumet is also flavored with white wine and lemon juice. When making a fumet, sweat the bones and vegetables before adding the cooking liquid and seasonings. Vegetable Stock A good vegetable stock should be clear and light colored. Because no animal products are used, it has no gelatin content. A vegetable stock can be used instead of a meat-based stock in most recipes. This substitution is useful when preparing vegetarian dishes or as a lighter, more healthful alternative when preparing sauces and soups. Although almost any combination of vegetables can be used for stock making, more variety is not always better. Sometimes a vegetable stock made with one of two vegetables that complement the finished dish particularly well will produce better results than a stock made with many vegetables. Court Bouillon A court bouillon, though not actually a stock, is prepared in much the same manner as stocks, so it is included here. A court bouillon (French for "short broth") is a flavored liquid, usually water and wine or vinegar, in which vegetables and seasonings have been simmered to impart their flavors and aromas. Court bouillon is most commonly used to poach foods such as fish and shellfish. Recipes vary depending upon the foods to be poached. Although a court bouillon can be made in advance and refrigerated for later use, its simplicity lends itself to fresh preparation whenever needed. Nage An aromatic court bouillon is sometimes served as a light sauce or broth with fish or shellfish. This is known as a nage, and dishes served in this manner are described as a la nage (Fr. for "swimming".). After the fish or shellfish is cooked, additional herbs and aromatic vegetables are added to the cooking liquid, which is then reduced slightly and strained. Alternatively, the used court bouillon can be strained, chilled, and clarified with egg whites and aromatic vegetables in the same manner as a consommé. Finally, whole butter or cream may be added to a nage for richness. Glaze A glaze is the dramatic reduction and concentration of a stock. One gallon (4 liters) or stock produces only 1 to 2 cups (2 ½ to 5 deciliters) of glaze. Glace de viande is made from brown stock, reduced until becomes dark and syrupy. Glace de volaille is made form chicken stock, and glace de poisson from fish stock. Glazes are added to soups or sauces to increase and intensify flavors. They are also used as a source of intense flavoring for several of the small sauces. Procedure for Reducing a Stock to a Glaze Simmer the stock over very low heat. Be careful not to let it burn and skim if It often. As it reduces and the volume decreases, transfer the liquid into progressively smaller saucepans. Strain the liquid each time it is transferred into a smaller saucepans. Strain the liquid each time it is transferred into a smaller saucepan. Strain it a final time, cool and refrigerate. A properly made glaze will keep for several months under refrigeration.     COPYRIGHT©2005 VICTORIA PACKING CORP. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ( CTR-110505-STK)