You can scroll on the bar or click the appropriate letter to find what you would like. Absolutism The doctrine that there is one explanation of all reality-the absolute-that is unchanging and objectively true. Absolutists (such as G.W.F. Hegel) hold that this absolute, such as God or mind, is eternal and that in it all seeming differences are reconciled. Aesthetics (esthetics) The philosophical study of art, or of beauty in general. It attempts to systematically answer such questions as, What is beauty? How do we evaluate works of art? Are aesthetic judgments objective or subjective? How does art embody truth and convey knowledge? How does beauty in art relate to beauty in nature? Altruism The ethical theory that morality consists of concern for and the active promotion of the interests of others. Altruists strongly disagree with the doctrine of egoism, which states that individuals act only in their own self-interest. Analytic Statement A statement true by definition, such as "All triangles have three sides." Anarchism A political philosophy that advocates the abolition of an organized state as the ruling government. Its advocates believe that individuals should be free to organize themselves in the ways that best enable them to fulfill their needs and ideals. The Russian thinker Mikhail Bakunin (1814-76) was in influential anarchist. Angst A German word meaning anxiety, anguish, or dread. The term was used by Martin Heidegger and other adherents of existentialism to express their belief that anxiety characterizes the human condition and that dread arises from out realization that we are totally responsible for all of our choices. A Posteriori Knowledge Knowledge based on or derived from sensory experience. A Priori Knowledge Knowledge acquired by the mind or reasoning alone, without any specific basis in experience-for instance, 2 + 2 =4. Argument An attempt to relate one set of statements, called the premises or the starting point, to another set, called the conclusion or the end point, by valid means. Arguments are either inductive or deductive. See also Syllogism. Asceticism The view that attention to the body's needs is evil, an obstacle to moral and spiritual development, and displeasing to God. According to this view, humans are urged to withdraw into an inner spiritual world to reach the good life. Associationism A philosophical theory of the mind that holds tat all mental states can be analyzed as separate component items and that all mental activity can be explained by the combining and recombining of these items, often called ideas David Hume and John Stuart Mill were prominent advocates of this view. See also associated of ideas. Association of ideas (laws of association) The principles by which the mind connects ideas. Aristotle included similarity, contrast, and closeness; David Hume held the basic laws to be resemblance, closeness in time or place, and causality. Hume and John Stuart Mill are the two most prominent philosophers who emphasized association as the basic principle of the mind. See also Associationism. Atheism The rejection of the belief in God. Some atheists have held that there is nothing in the world that requires a God in order to be explained. Atheism is not the same as agnosticism, which holds that we can have knowledge neither of the existence nor of the nonexistence of God. Atomism The theory that reality is composed of simple and indivisible units (atoms) that are completely separate from and independent of one another. Philosophers have differed as to the nature of atoms; for instance, the Greek thinkers Leucippus and Democritus (5th century B.C.) held that the atoms are different-shaped bits of matter. Bad faith Term used by Jean-Paul Sartre for self-deception and the deception of others caused by denying one's freedom of choice and one's responsibility for making decisions. Becoming That which changes from one form to another, or, in Plato, that which is known only by experience and exists only temporarily. See also being. Being Frequently used in metaphysics to contrast with appearance or nonexistence; often synonymous with unchanging substance, ultimate reality, God, infinity, or all that exists. Aristotle held that being is the subject matter of metaphysics. See also becoming. Bioethics A branch of philosophy that studies ethical issues that arise from conflicts between human rights and medical and biological research and the technology they use. Areas of concern are genetic manipulation, euthanasia, and brain control. Buridan's Ass A story, falsely attributed to the 14th century thinker John Buridan, in which an ass, faced with two equally desirable bales of hay, starves to death because he cannot find good reason for preferring one bale to the other. Categorical Imperative Immanuel Kant's term for the binding moral law, which dictates that one should act only according to a maxim that could serve as a universal law - for instance, to treat humanity as an end and never only as a means. Cause Whatever is responsible for change, action, or motion. Historically, Aristotle's analysis of cause falls into four types: material cause, the substance a thing is made of; formal cause, the design of the thing; efficient cause, the maker of the thing; and final cause, its purpose or function. David Hume argued that all knowledge of cause comes from our actual experience of observed regularities. Certainty According to Rene Descartes, a condition of knowing that anything is try; various types of statements for example 1 + 1 =2, or all widows are female - have certainty. Chain Of Being An idea, originating with Plato and very influential in Western thought into the Renaissance, that all possible things are realized in the world in an ordered chain of diminishing complexity and richness, from God down to the tiniest, humblest bit of matter. The view captures the concept of the universe as an ordered hierarchy. Conceptualism The doctrine, intermediate between nominalism and realism that general ideas, such as the idea of a man or of redness, exist explicitly in the minds of all people. These concepts are not arbitrary ideas, but reflect the similarities between particular things. Cosmogony A theory or story about the origin of the universe, either scientific or mythological. Cosmogonies are also called creation myths. Cosmology the systematic study of the origin and structure of the universe as a whole. In such philosophers as Plato, Aristotle, and Immanuel Kant, cosmology was based on metaphysical speculation; today cosmology is a branch of the physical sciences. Counterexample A specific fact that refutes or negates a generalization; for instance, a black swan is a counterexample to the statement "All swans are white" Deductive Reasoning Reasoning from a general statement to a particular or specific example; for example, "All cats are mortal; William is a cat; therefore, William is mortal". See also Syllogism. Deontology The ethical philosophy that makes duty the basis of all morality. According too deontological theorists. Such as Immanuel Kant, some acts-such as keeping a promise or telling the truth-are moral obligations regardless of their consequences. Determination The view that every event has a cause and that everything in the universe is absolutely dependent on and governed by causal laws. Because determinists believe that all events, including human actions, are predetermined, determinism is typically thought to be incompatible with free will. Dialectic A term with different meanings for different philosophers. It derives from the Greek word meaning "to converse" and is used to describe Socrates's method of teaching by question-and-answer technique. Plato used the word to mean the study of the Forms. To Immanuel Kant, it meant a method of criticizing claims of knowledge going beyond experience. Georg Hegel means by it the necessary pattern of thinking. Doubt According to Rene Descartes, the argument that nothing can be considered true unless it can never be doubted under any conditions. Descartes doubted everything "systematically" to find out if anything is indubitable; his "cogito, ego sum" ("I think, therefore I am") survived this test. Dualism Any philosophical theory holding that the universe consists of, or can only be explained by, two independent and separate forces, such as matter and spirit, the forces of good and evil, or the supernatural and natural. See also mind body problem.' Duty According to many ethical theories, the basis of the virtuous life. The stoics held that man has a duty to live virtuously and according to reason; and Immanuel Kant held that his categorical imperative is the highest law of duty, no matter what the consequences. Egocentric Predicament The belief that each of us is limited to, and by, our unique pattern of perceptions. Any knowledge of the world outside out minds would thus be colored by our perceptions. See also solipsism. Egoism The ethical theory that each person should forward his or her own self-interest. Egoists sometimes argue that his is not selfishness, but that self-interest is compatible with helping others as well. Some egoists also argue that, psychologically speaking human beings always in fact seek their own well-being. Élan vital See vitalism Empirical Based on experience, observation, or facts-in short, describing any knowledge derived from or validated by sensory experience. Empiricism The view that all knowledge of the world derives solely from sensory experience, using observation and experimentation if needed; empiricism also holds that reason on its own can never provide knowledge of reality unless it also utilizes experience. Empiricism suggests that any concept of the physical world is nothing more than a generalization derived from particular circumstances. Epistemology The branch of philosophy that studies how knowledge is gained, how much we can know, and what justification there is for what is known. Eschatology In theology, the study of "final things," such as death, resurrection, immortality, the second coming of Christ, and the day of judgment. Essence That which makes a specific thing what it is and not something else; its nature. While the Greek philosophers viewed essence and substance as basically the same, St.Thomas Aquinas and the philosophy of Scholasticism held that even non-existent things have natures or essences distinguishable from the fact of their existence. Esthetics See Aesthetics. Euthanasia The act of allowing a terminally ill person to freely choose when and how he or she will die; mercy killing. Fatalism The belief that "what will be will be," because all past, present, and future events have already been predetermined by God or another all-powerful force. In religion, this view may be called predestination; it holds that whether our souls go to heaven or hell is determined before we are born and is independent of our goods deeds. Forms According to Plato, the eternal, unchanging, immaterial, and perfect archetypes of which all-existing things are merely imperfect copies; also called Ideas. Four Elements According to many early Greek philosophers, the four basic constituents of the physical world; earth, air, fire, and water. Free Will The theory that human beings have freedom of choice or self-determinations; that is, that given a situation, a person could have done other than what he did. Philosophers have argued that free will is incompatible with determinism. See also indeterminism. Golden Mean The ethical doctrine, originating with Aristotle, that virtuous actions fall exactly between too much of some quality, such as impulsive behavior, and too little of it, such as timidity. It is associated with ethics calling for moderation. Golden rule The fundamental moral rule of most religions, especially Christianity, that states, "Do unto others as you would have others to unto you." Greatest Happiness Principle See principle of utility; utilitarianism under "Philosophical Movements and Schools of Thought." Hobson's Choice A choice offered without any real alternative-therefore, not really a choice at all. Humanism Any philosophic view that holds that humankind's well being and happiness in this life-time are primary and that the good of all humanity is the highest ethical goal. Twentieth century humanists tend to reject all beliefs in the supernatural, relying instead on scientific methods and reason. The term is also used to refer to Renaissance thinkers, especially in 15th-century Italy, who emphasized the revival of classical studies, or the humanities and knowledge and learning not based on religious sources. Idealism A term applied to any philosophy holding that mind or spiritual values, rather than material things or matter, are primary in the universe. Immortality The view that the individual soul is eternal, and thus survives the death of the body it resides in. See also transmigration of soul. Indeterminism The view that there are events that do not have any cause; many proponents of free will believe that acts of choice are capable of not being determined by any physiological or psychological cause. Inductive Reasoning Any process of reasoning from something particular to something general, or from a part to a whole. Inductive reasoning can be valid or invalid. Innate Ideas Ideas that are inborn and part of the mind at birth, rather than based on specific experiences. Rene Descartes believed there are "clear and distinct" ideas that are innate and that form the basis of all knowledge. Plato believed that knowledge of the Forms derives from innate ideas. Instrumentalism A theory that holds that ideas and concepts should be regarded as tools or instruments to be used in specific situations. As such, they cannot be described as true or false, but only as effective or ineffective. This theory was first put forth by John Dewey. Justice According to most philosophers, staring with Plato, the harmonious balance between the rights of the various members of a society. Justice is usually understood as including such social virtues as fairness, equality, and correct and impartial treatment. Language, Philosophy Of See philosophy of language. Language game A concept introduced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, who drew an analogy between how we use language and how we play games; both have rules and moves that make sense only in the context of a particular game. Wittgenstein and his followers used this concept to point out that philosophers frequently try to make moves in one context that make sense only in another, as when they try to verify religious statements as if they were a part of science. Logic The study of the rules and the nature of reasoning and of valid or sound patters of thoughts. Aristotle classified many of the rules of reasoning. In the late 19th and 20th centuries, logic was advanced into a branch of mathematics. Currently, mathematical logic is a growing field independent of philosophy. See also Syllogism. Materialism The theory that holds that the nature of the world is dependent on matter, or that matter is the only fundamental substance; thus, spirit and mind either do not exist or are manifestations of matter. Prevalent throughout the history of western civilization, this theory appeared as early as the 4th century B.C. in the teachings of Democritus, and it formed the basis for dialectical materialism, the philosophical doctrine underlying communism. Mathematical Logic See logic Mathematics, Philosophy Of See philosophy of mathematics. Mechanism The philosophical theory that states that living organisms, including humans, are complex machines, because they are composed of matter. Metaethics A branch of philosophy that analyzes ethics. It is concerned with such issues as, How are moral decisions justified? What is the foundation of any ethical view? What language is used to state moral beliefs? Metaphysics The branch of philosophy concerned with the ultimate nature of reality and existence as a whole. Metaphysics also includes the study of cosmology and philosophical theology. Aristotle produced the first "system" of metaphysics. Metempsychosis See transmigration of souls. Mind See philosophy of mind. Mind-Body Problem A central problem of modern philosophy that originated with Rene Descartes. It asks how the mind and the body are related. Monad According to Leibniz, the ultimate and indivisible units of all existence. Monads are not material, like atoms; each monad is self-activating, a unique center of force. All monads are in a "preestablished harmony" with each other and with God, the supreme monad. Monism A term introduced in the 18th century to describe any theory that explains all phenomena by a single unifying principle or that reduces everything in the universe to one fundamental substance, energy, or force. In Georg Hegel, this concept can be seen in his vision of the world as a single organism, developing through a dialectical process. Benedict Spinoza held that mind and spirit are aspects of single entity, which he called God or nature. Mysticism Any philosophy whose roots are in mystical experiences, intuitions, or direct experiences of the divine. In such experiences, the mystic believes that his or her soul has temporarily achieved union with God. Mystics believe reality can be known only in this manner, not through reasoning or everyday experience. Myth of Er A parable at the end of Plato's Republic about the fate of souls after bodily death; according to Plato, the soul must choose wisdom in the afterlife to guarantee a good life in its next cycle of incarnation. Natural Law The theory that there is a higher law than the humanmade laws put forth by specific governments. This law is universal, unchanging, and a fundamental part of human nature. Advocates of this view believe that natural law can be discovered by reason alone. The theory originated with the Stoics and was elaborated on by St. Thomas Aquinas, among others. Natural Rights Certain freedoms or privileges that are held to be an innate part of the nature of being a human being and that cannot be denied by society. These are different from civil rights, which are granted by a specific nation or government. Philosophers have differed on which rights are natural, but usually included are life, liberty, equality, equal treatment under the law, the pursuit of happiness, and equality of opportunity. John Locke's influential views on natural rights inspired the writers of the U.S. Constitution. Naturalism A philosophic view stating that all there is in reality is what the physical and human sciences (for example, physics or psychology) study and that there is no need to posit any supernatural forces or being, such as God, mind, or spirit. Naturalistic Fallacy A belief of many 20th-century philosophers in England and the United States that it is invalid to infer any statements of morality (for example, "Men ought to act kindly") from factual statements (for example, "kindness is a natural quality"). The notion tries to derive ought from is and was first described by David Hume. Necessary And Contingent Truth Terms used by philosophers to contrast two types of statements, such as "All widowers are male," which is necessarily true, and "All widowers are over 20 years old," which may be true but is not necessarily true. Nominalism A doctrine, prevalent in the Middle Ages, that maintained that ideas and objects exist only in the particular instance, not as abstract concepts or forms. In opposition to realism, it held that all universals are merely names and have no existence of their own. Non Sequitur A Latin phrase meaning "it does not follow"; any argument where the conclusion drawn has not even the slightest connection to the premises offered. Objectivism The view that there are moral truths that are valid universally and that it is wrong to knowingly gain pleasure from causing another pain. Obligation In ethics, a moral necessity to do a specific deed. Some ethicists, following Immanuel Kant, hold that moral obligations are absolute. See also categorical imperative. Ockam's Razor A principle attributed to the 14th-century English philosopher William of Ockham. It states that entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity, or that one should choose the simplest explanation, the one requiring the fewest assumptions and principles. Ontology A branch of metaphysics that studies the nature of existence or reality, as such, as opposed to specific types of existing entities. Operationalism (Operationism) A philosophy of science according to which any scientific concept must be definable in terms of concrete, observable activities or the operations to which it refers. Optimism The philosophic attitude that this is the best of all possible worlds, that hope and joy are justified, and that all things are ordered for the best. According to optimists, such as Gottfried Leibniz, evil either is an illusion or will be compensated for by an even greater good. Pantheism The belief that God and the universe are identical; among modern philosophers, Benedict Spinoza is considered to be a pantheist. Particulars See universals. Pascal's Wager An argument made by Blaise Pascal for believing in God. Pascal said that either the tenets of Roman Catholicism are true or they are not, if they are true, and we wager that they are true, then we have won an eternity of bliss; if they are false, and death is final, what has the bettor lost? On the other hand, if one wagers against God's existence and turns out to be wrong, there is eternal damnation. Pessimism The philosophic attitude holding that hope is unreasonable, that is a person is born to sorrow, and that this is the worst of all possible worlds. Arthur Schoopenhauer's philosophy is an example of extreme pessimism. Phenomenalism The doctrine that the only knowledge we can every have is of appearances, and thus that we can never know the nature of ultimate reality. Major adherents of the philosophy were John Stuart Mill and some members of the Vienna Circle. Philosopher King In Plato's Republic, a philosopher trained by formal study in disciplines including mathematics and philosophy. Plato emphasized that philosopher kings' leadership would be shown by their ability to see the Forms, or universal ideals. See also Forms. Philosophy Of Language The area of philosophic study whose subject matter is the nature and workings of language. Detailed discussions of such topics as meaning, reference, grammar, and symbols infuse this branch of philosophy. Philosophy of mathematics A branch of philosophy that studies such question as, what are mathematical statements about? Why is mathematics true? Why is mathematics so useful in studying reality? Philosophy of Mind The area of philosophy that studies the mind, consciousness, and mental functions such as thinking, intention, imagination, and emotion. It is not one specific branch of philosophy, but rather an aspect of most traditional branches, such as metaphysics, epistemology, and aesthetics. Philosophy of Religion A branch of philosophy concerned with such questions as, what is religion? What is God? Can God's existence be proved? Is there immortality? What is the relationship between faith, reason and revelation? Is there a divine purpose in the world? Philosophy of Science The branch of philosophy that studies that nature of science. It is particularly concerned with the methods, concepts, and assumptions of science, as well as with analyzing scientific concepts such as space, time, cause, scientific law, and verification. Physicalism A theory about knowledge that originated within the Vienna Circle. It holds that all factual statements can be reduced to observations of physical objects and events. See Also operationalism. Plato's Cave An analogy in Plato's Republic between reality and illusion. The main image is of people who see on the walls of a cave only the shadows of the real objects moving around outside the cave. When these people leave the cave and see the real objects, they cannot, upon returning to the cave. Convince those who have never left of the reality of the objects. Pluralism The view that there are more than two kinds of fundamental, irreducible realities in the universe, or that there are many separate and independent levels of reality. Political Philosophy The branch of philosophy that studies a person as a political animal. It is concerned with such questions as, what obligations do I have to my government? How is political power justified? Under what conditions is war justified? It also studies the nature of property, justice, freedom, liberty, and political rights. Positivism A theory originated by French philosopher Auguste Comte. It holds that all knowledge is defined by the limits of scientific investigation; thus, philosophy must abandon any quest for knowledge of an ultimate reality or any knowledge beyond that offered by science. Predestination See fatalism. Premises See argument. Principle (or law) of Noncontradiction Dating back to Aristotle, this universally accepted "law of thought" has two parts: A statement cannot be both true and false; nothing can both have a quality, like red, and not have it, at the same time. Principle of Sufficient Reason The philosophical doctrine of Leibniz that assets that for every fact there is a reason for its being the way it is rather than another way, even though we may not know that reason. Principle of utility (greatest happiness principle) The basic tenet of utilitarianism. It states that the highest ethical good provides the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. Psychologism A view of philosophy holding that all philosophic concepts and problems are explainable based on psychological principles and that they should be treated by some form of psychological analysis. Advocates of this view may disagree on the type of psychological approach that is appropriate. QED Latin for quod erat demonstrandum ("that which was to be demonstrated"). This abbreviation is often used right before or after stating a conclusion, as a synonym for therefore, thus, or as was to be shown. Rationalism A doctrine holding that reason or thinking alone, without recourse to observation or experience, can apprehend basic truths. The notion of innate, universal concepts is naturally associated with this theory. Rene Descartes, Gottfried Leibniz, Benedict Spinoza, and Georg Hegel were all essentially rationalists in their approach to the foundations of knowledge. Realism The major medieval and modern view, other than nominalism, on the problem of universals. Extreme realism, which is close to Plato's theory of Forms, holds that universals exist independently of both particular things and the human mind; moderate realism, put forth by St. Thomas Aquinas, holds that universals exist as ideas in God's mind, through which He creates things. Reincarnation See transmigration of souls. Relativism The precept that people's ideas of right or wrong vary considerably from place to place and time to time; therefore, tee are no universally valid ethical standards. Religion, philosophy of See philosophy of religion. Science, philosophy of See philosophy of science. Sensationalism An empiricist theory of knowledge that holds that sensations are both the source of all knowledge and the ultimate verification of any statements. Thomas Hobbes originated the view; Etienne Condillac (1715-1880) and Ernst Mach (1838-1916) developed it. Sense Data The sensory qualities or feelings we experience directly, such as shapes, colors, and smells, without any interpretation of the material objects that may be causing them. Some empiricists and sensationalist philosophers make sense data the foundation of all factual knowledge. Skepticism The philosophic theory that no certain knowledge can be attained by humans. Broadly speaking, skepticism states that all knowledge should be questioned and tested - for instance, by the scientific method. Social Contract That concept of an agreement between people, or between people and government or ruler, in which it is agreed that some personal liberties will be given up in exchange for the security of stable political rule. The term is used in the political philosophy of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau to justify a form of political authority. Solipsism The theory that one cannot know anything other than his or her own thoughts, feelings, or perceptions; therefore, other people and the real world must be projections of one's own mind with no existence in and of themselves. See also egocentric predicament. Spiritism A term referring to the belief that spirits of the dead communicate with the living-for instance, at seances or through a medium. Spiritualism The view that the ultimate reality in the universe is the spirit. Advocates of this view may disagree about the nature of the spirit. State of nature A term used by 17th-and 18th century social philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It referred to the condition of humans without political organization, or before government. Subjectivism The theory that all moral values are completely dependent on the personal tastes, feelings, or inclinations of the individual and have no source of validity outside such human subjective states of mind. Substance A changeless, self-subsistent entity, not dependent on anything else, that underlies being inn all its forms. It has been identified with God, mind, matter, and self-contained ultimate realities. See also monad. Supernaturalism The belief that there are forces, energies, or beings beyond the material world-such as God, spirit, or occult forces-that affect events in our world. Syllogism A kind of deductive reasoning or argument. As defined by Aristotle, it was considered the basis of reasoning for over two thousand years. In every syllogism, there are two statements (premises) from which a conclusion follows necessarily. Syllogisms are of thee basic logical types, as illustrated by the following examples. See also argument. If a brook is new, it sweeps clean; the broom is new; there, it sweeps clean. Either the horse is male or female; the horse is not female; therefore, it is male. All philosophers are men; all men are mortal; therefore, all philosophers are mortal. Synthetic statement A factual statement describing a state of affairs, such as "Triangles are used in architectural studios." Tabula Rasa A Latin phrase meaning "blank slate," used by John Locke to describe the state of the human mind at birth. Locke believed there are no innate ideas and that the mind gets all of its ideas from experience. Tautology Any statement that is necessarily true merely because of its meaning, such as "Bachelors are unmarried males" or "Every green object is colored." See also Necessary and contingent truth. Teleological Ethics In contrast with deontological ethics, this moral theory holds that whether an action is morally right depends solely on its expected consequences. Transcendent Beyond the realm of sense experience. In many religious views, God is held to be transcendent. Transmigration of Souls (metempsychosis; reincarnation) The belief that the same soul can, in different lifetimes (incarnations), reside in different bodies, human or animal. While typically a part of most Eastern religions, the doctrine came into Western philosophy from Pythagoras and his contemporaries in the 6th century B.C. and especially trough Plato. Universals The properties, or the abstract or general words. That applies to many individual things, called particulars. Redness, for instance, is a universal that applies to all red things. Utopianism The belief in the possibility or desirability of not just a better but a perfect society. The term derives from Sir Thomas More's Utopia (1516), which depicts an ideal state. Utopian states also appear in the writings of Plato and Sir Francis Bacon. Vitalism The theory that living organisms are inherently different from inanimate bodies; thus, life cannot be explained fully by materialistic theories as it is based on a vital force that is unlike other physical forces. Aristotle, Hans Driesch (1867-1941), and Henri Bergson (1859-1941) were prominent vitalists. In Bergson's view, the élan vital is the evolutionary force in organisms that propels life to achieve higher levels of structure. Will to Believe A phrase made famous by William James. He held that in the absence of decisive evidence, the mind may created belief in order to act, often resulting in discovery. He also maintained that believing in such situations is a human right that should not be backed away from. Will to Power The view, expounded by Friedrich Nietzsche, that power is the chief motivating force in human nature. The view was influential in 20th century psychology and social science.     COPYRIGHT©2005 VICTORIA PACKING CORP. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ( CTR-110505-PHI)