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Cooking can be defined as the transfer of energy from a heat source
to a food. This energy alters the food's molecular structure, changing its
texture, flavor aroma and appearance. But why is food cooked at all? The
obvious answer is that cooking makes food taste better. Cooking also destroys
undesirable microorganisms and makes foods easier to ingest and digest.
To cook foods successfully, you must first understand the ways in which
heat is transferred: conduction, convection and radiation. You should also
understand what the application of heat does to the proteins, sugars, starches,
water and, fats in foods.
Perhaps most important, you must understand the cooking methods used to
transfer heat: broiling, grilling, roasting and baking, sautéing, pan-frying,
deep-frying, poaching, simmering, boiling, steaming, braising and stewing.
Each method is used for many types of food, so you will be applying one
or more of them every time you cook. The cooking method you select gives
the finished product a specific texture, appearance, aroma and flavor. A
thorough understanding of the basic procedures involved in each cooking
method helps you produce consistent, high-quality products.
Heat Transfer
Heat is a type of energy. When a substance gets hot, its molecules have
absorbed energy, which causes the molecules to vibrate rapidly, expand and
bounce off one another. As the molecules move, they collide with nearby
molecules, causing a transfer of heat energy. The faster the molecules within
a substance move, the higher its temperature. This is true whether the substance
is air, water, an aluminum pot or a sirloin steak. Heat energy may be transferred
to foods via conduction, convention or radiation. Heat then travels through
foods by conduction. Only heat is transferred-cold is simply the absence
of heat, so cold cannot he transferred from one substance to another.
Conduction
Conduction is the most straightforward means of heat transfer. It is simply
the movement of heat from one item to another through direct contact. For
example, when the flame of a gas burner touches the bottom of a sauté pan,
heat is conducted to the pan. The metal of the pan then conducts heat to
the surface of the food lying in that pan.
Some materials conduct heat better than others. Water is a better conductor
of heat than air. This explains why a potato cooks much faster in boiling
water than in an oven, and why you cannot place your hand in boiling water
at a temperature of 212 F (1000C), but can place your hand, at least very
briefly, into a 400 F (2000C) oven.
Generally, metals are good conductors. Copper and aluminum are the best
conductors, while liquids and gases are poor conductors. Conduction is a
relatively slow method of heat transfer because there must be physical contact
to transfer energy from one molecule to adjacent molecules. Consider what
happens when a metal spoon is placed in a pot of simmering soup. At first
the spoon handle remains cool. Gradually, however, heat travels up the handle,
making it warmer and warmer, until it becomes too hot to touch.
Conduction is important in all cooking methods because it is responsible
for the movement of heat from the surface of a food to its interior. As
the molecules near the foods exterior gather energy, they move more and
more rapidly. As they move, they conduct heat to the molecules nearby, thus
transferring heat through the food(from the exterior of the item to the
interior).
In conventional heating methods (nonmicrowave), the heat source causes food
molecules to react largely from the surface inward so that layers of molecules
heat in succession. This produces a range of temperatures within the food,
which means that the outside can brown and form a crust long before the
interior is noticeably warmer. That is why a steak can be fully cooked on
the outside but still rare on the inside.
Convection
Convection refers to the transfer of heat through a fluid, which may be
liquid or gas. Convection is actually a combination of conduction and a
mixing in which molecules in a fluid (whether air, water or fat) move from
a warmer area to a cooler one.
There are two types of convection: natural and mechanical. Natural convection
occurs because of the tendency of warm liquids and gases to rise while cooler
ones fall. This causes a constant natural circulation of heat. For example,
when a pot of stock is placed over a gas burner, the molecules at the bottom
of the pot are warmed. These molecules rise while cooler, heavier molecules
sink. Upon reaching the pots bottom, the cooler molecules are warmed and
begin to rise. This ongoing cycle creates currents within the stock, and
these currents distribute the heat throughout the stock.
Mechanical convection relies on fans or stirring to circulate heat more
quickly and evenly. This explains why foods heat faster and more evenly
when stirred. Convection ovens are equipped with fans to increase the circulation
of air currents, thus speeding tip the cooking process. But even conventional
ovens (that is, not convection ovens) rely on the natural circulation patterns
of heated air to transfer heat energy to items being baked or roasted.
Radiation
Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not require physical contact
between the heat source and the food being cooked. Instead, energy is transferred
by waves of heat or light striking the food. Two kinds of radiant heat are
used in the kitchen: infrared and microwave.
Infrared cooking uses an electric or ceramic element heated to such a high
temperature that it gives off waves of radiant heat that cooks the food.
Radiant heat waves travel at the speed of light in all direction unlike
convection heat, which only rises until they are absorbed by a food.
Induction cooking uses a special induction coil placed below the stove top's
surface in combination with specially designed cookware made of cast iron
or magnetic stainless steel. The coil generates a magnetic current so that
the cookware is heated rapidly with magnetic friction. Heat energy is then
transferred from the cookware to the food by conduction. The cooking surface,
which is made of a solid ceramic material, remains cool. Only the cookware
and its contents get hot.
Induction cooking is a relatively new process, more popular in Europe than
the United States. But it is gaining acceptance in professional kitchens
because of the speed with which foods can be heated and the ease of cleanup.
which only rises) until they are absorbed by a food. Infrared cooking is
commonly used with toasters and broilers. The glowing coals of a fire are
another example of radiant heat.
Microwave cooking relies on radiation generated by a special oven penetrate
the food, where it agitates water molecules, creating friction heat. This
energy then spreads throughout the food by conduction(and convection in
liquids) Microwave cooking is much faster than other methods because energy
penetrates the food up to a depth of several centimeters, putting all water
molecules in motion at the same time. Heat is generated quickly and uniformly
throughout the food.
Microwave cooking does not brown foods however, and often gives meats a
mushy texture, making microwave ovens an unacceptable replacement for traditional
ovens. Because microwave radiation affects only water molecules, a completely
waterless material (such as a plate) will not get hot. Any warmth felt in
air used when microwaving food results from heat being conducted to the
plate.
Microwave cooking requires the use of certain types of utensils, usually
heat-resistant glass or microwavable plastic. Even heat-resistant glass
can shatter and is not recommended for professional use, however. The aluminum
stainless steel utensils most common in professional kitchens cannot be
used because metal deflects microwaves, and this can damage the oven.
The Effects OF Heat
Foods are composed of proteins, carbohydrates (starches and sugars), and
fats, plus small amounts of minerals and vitamins. Changes in shape, texture,
color and flavor of foods may occur when heat is applied to cad these nutrients.
By understanding these changes and learning to control them you will be
able to prepare foods with the characteristics desired. Although volumes
are written on these subjects, it is sufficient for you to know the following
processes as you begin your study of cooking.
Proteins Coagulate
The proper term for the cooking of proteins is coagulation. Proteins are
large, complex molecules found in every living cell, plant as well as animal.
Coagulation refers to the irreversible transformation of proteins from a
liquid or semi-liquid state to a solid state. As proteins cook, they lose
moisture, shrink and become firm. Common examples of coagulation are the
firming of meat fibers during cooking, egg whites changing from a clear
liquid to a white solid when heated and the setting of the structure of
wheat proteins (known as gluten) in bread during baking. Most proteins complete
coagulation at 1600F to 1850F (710C-850C).
Starches Gelatinize
Gelatinization is the proper term for the cooking of starches. Starches
are complex carbohydrates present in plants and grains such as potatoes,
wheat, rice and corn. When a mixture of starch and liquid is heated remarkable
changes occur. The starch granules absorb water, causing them to swell,
soften and clarify slightly. The liquid visibly thickens because of the
water being absorbed into the starch granules and the granules themselves
swelling to occupy more space.
Gelatinization occurs gradually over a range of temperatures-I 500F to 212Th
(660C-1000C)-depending on the type of starch used. Starch gelatinization
affects not only sauces or liquids to which starches are added for the express
purpose of thickening, but also any mixture of starch and liquid that is
heated. For example, the flour (a starch) in cake hatter gelatinizes by
absorbing the water from egg, milk or other ingredients as the batter bakes.
This causes part of the firming and drying associated with baked goods.
Sugars Caramelize
The process of cooking sugars is properly known as caramelization. Sugars
are simple carbohydrates used by all plants and animals to store energy.
As sugars cook, they gradually turn brown and change flavor. Caramelized
sugar is used in many sauces, candies and desserts. But cararmelized sugar
is also partly responsible for the flavor and color of bread crusts and
the browning of meats and vegetables. In fact, it is the process of caramelization
that is responsible for most flavors we associate with cooking.
Sucrose (common table sugar) begins to brown at about 338F (1700C). The
naturally occurring sugars in other foods such as maltose lactose and fructose
also caramelize, but at varying temperatures. Because high temperatures
are required for browning (that is, caramelizing), most foods will brown
only on the outside and only through the application of dry heat. Because
water cannot be heated above 212F (1000C), foods cooked with moist-heat
methods do not get hot enough to caramelize. Foods cooked with dry-heat
methods, including those using fats, will reach the high temperatures at
which browning occurs.
Water Evaporates
All foods contain some water. Some foods, especially eggs, milk and leafy
vegetables, are almost entirely water. Even as much as 75% of raw meat is
water. As the internal temperature of a food increases, water molecules
move faster and faster until the water turns to a gas (steam) and vaporizes.
This evaporation of water is responsible for the drying of foods during
cooking.
Fats Melt
Fat is an energy source for the plant or animal in which it is stored. Fats
are smooth, greasy substances that do not dissolve in water. Their texture
varies from very firm to liquid. Oils are simply fats that remain liquid
at room temperature. Fats melt when heated; that is, they gradually soften,
then liquefy. Fats will not evaporate. Most fats can be heated to very high
temperatures without burning, so they can be used as a cooking medium to
brown foods.
COOKING METHODS
Foods can he cooked in air, fat, water or steam. These are collectively
known as cooking media. There are two general types of cooking methods:
dry heat and moist heat. Dry-heat cooking methods are those using air or
fat. They are broiling, grilling, roasting and baking, sautéing, pan-frying
and deep-frying.
Foods cooked using dry-heat cooking methods have a rich flavor caused by
browning. Moist-heat cooking methods are those using water or steam. They
are poaching, simmering, boiling and steaming. Moist-heat cooking methods
are used to emphasize the natural flavors of food. Other cooking methods
employ a combination of dry- and moist-heat cooking methods. The two most
significant of these combination-cooking methods are braising and stewing.
Each of these cooking methods can be applied to a wide variety of foods-
meats, fish, vegetables and even pastries. Here, we discuss only the general
characteristics of these cooking methods.
DRY-HEAT COOKING METHODS
Cooking by dry heat is the process of applying heat either directly, by
subjecting the food to the heat of a flame, or indirectly, by surrounding
the food with heated air or heated fat.
Broiling
Broiling uses radiant heat from an overhead source to cook foods. The temperature
at the heat source can be as high as 20000F (10930C). The food to be broiled
is placed on a preheated metal grate. Radiant heat from overhead cooks the
food, while the hot grate below marks it with attractive crosshatch marks.
Delicate foods that may be damaged by being placed directly on a metal grate
or foods on which crosshatch marks are not desirable may be placed on a
preheated heatproof platter then placed under the broiler. Cooking will
take place through indirect heat from the preheated platter as well as from
the direct heat from the broiler's overhead heat source.
Grilling
Although similar to broiling, grilling uses a heat source located beneath
the cooking surface. Grills may be electric or gas, or they can burn wood
or charcoal, which will add a smoky flavor to the food. Specific woods such
as mesquite, hickory or vine clippings can be used to create special flavors.
Grilled foods are often identified by crosshatch markings
Roasting and Baking
Roasting and baking are the processes of surrounding a food with dry, heated
air in a closed environment. The term roasting is usually applied to meats
and poultry, while baking is used when referring to fish, fruits, vegetables,
starches, breads or pastry items. Heat is transferred by convection to the
food's surface, and then penetrates the food by conduction. The surface
dehydrates, and the food browns from caramelization completing the cooking
process.
Sautéing
Sautéing is a dry-heat cooking method that uses conduction to transfer heat
from a hot sauté pan to food with the aid (if a small amount of fat. Heat
then penetrates the food through conduction. High temperatures are used
to sauté, and the foods are usually cut into small pieces to promote even
cooking.
To sauté foods properly, begin by heating a sauté pan on the stovetop, then
add a small amount of fat. The fat should just cover the bottom of the pan.
Heat the fat or oil to the point where it just begins to smoke. the food
to be cooked should be as dry as possible when it is added to the pan to
promote browning and to prevent excessive spattering. Place the food in
the pan in a single layer. The heat should be adjusted so that the food
cooks thoroughly; it should not be so hot that the outside of the food burns
before the inside is cooked.
The food should be turned or tossed periodically to develop the proper color.
Larger items should be turned using tongs without piercing the surface.
Smaller items are often turned by using the sauteuse's sloped sides to flip
them back on top of themselves. When tossing sautéed foods, keep the pan
in contact with the heat source as much as possible to prevent it from cooling.
Sautéing sometimes includes the preparation of a sauce directly in the pan
after the main item has been removed. Stir-frying is a variation of sautéing.
A wok is used instead of a sauté pan; the curved sides and rounded bottom
of the wok diffuse heat and facilitate tossing and stirring. Otherwise,
stir-frying procedures are the same as those outlined for sautéing and will
not be discussed separately here.
Pan-Frying
Pan-frying shares similarities with both sautéing and deep-frying. It is
a dry-heat cooking method in which heat is transferred by conduction from
the pan to the food, using a moderate amount of fat. Heat is also transferred
to the food from the hot fat by convection, Foods to be pan-fried are usually
coated in breading. This forms a seal that keeps the food moist and prevents
the hot fat from penetrating the food causing it to become greasy.
To pan-fry foods properly first heat the fat in a sauté pan. Use enough
fat so that when the food to be cooked is added, the fat comes one third
to one half way up the item being cooked. The fat should be at a temperature
somewhat lower than that used in sautéing; it should not smoke but should
he hot enough so that when the food is added it crackles and spatters from
the rapid vaporization of moisture. If the temperature is too low, the food
will absorb excessive amounts of fat; if it is too high, the food will burn
on the outside before the interior is fully cooked.
When the food is properly browned on one side, turn it without piercing
it, using tongs. Always turn the food away from you to prevent being burned
by any fat that may splash. When the food is fully cooked, remove it from
the pan, drain it on absorbent paper and serve it immediately.
Deep-Frying
Deep-frying is a dry-heat cooking method that uses convection to transfer
heat to food submerged in hot fat. Heat then penetrates the food, cooking
the in tenor through conduction. Foods to be deep-fried are usually first
coated in batter or breading. This preserves moisture and prevents the food
from absorbing excessive quantities of fat.
Deep-fried foods should cook thoroughly while developing an attractive deep
golden-brown color. Foods to be deep-fried should be of a size and shape
that allows them to float freely in the fat. Today, most deep-frying is
done in specially designed commercial fryers. These deep-fat fryers have
built-in thermostats, making temperature control more precise.
To deep-fry food, first heat the fat or oil to temperatures between 3250F
and 3750F (1600C-1900C). Slowly place the food in the fat, where it should
float freely. Use tongs to turn it if necessary. When the food is clone,
remove it from the fat, drain it on absorbent paper and serve it immediately.
MOIST-HEAT COOKING METHODS
Cooking with moist heat is the process of applying heat to food by submerging
it directly into a hot liquid or by exposing it to steam.
Poaching
Poaching is a moist-heat cooking method that uses convection to transfer
heat from a liquid to a food. For poaching, the food is submerged in a liquid
held at temperatures between 160F and 1800F (710C-820C). The surface of
the liquid should show only slight movement, but no bubbles. The flavor
of the poaching liquid strongly affects the ultimate flavor of the finished
product, so stock, court bouillon or broth is generally used. Poaching is
most often associated with foods that do not require lengthy cooking to
tenderize them, such as eggs or fish.
To poach food, first bring the poaching liquid to a boil in a suitably shaped
cooking vessel. Add the food to be poached either by placing it directly
into the liquid or by lowering it into the liquid using a specially designed
rack. Adjust the heat as necessary to maintain the desired temperature throughout
the cooking process. Do not allow the liquid to reach a boil since the agitation
will cause meats to become tough and stringy and will destroy tender foods
such as fresh fruit or fish. The liquid used to poach food is sometimes
used to make an accompanying sauce.
Simmering
Simmering is another moist-heat cooking method that uses convection to transfer
heat from a liquid to a food. For simmering, the food is submerged in a
liquid held at temperatures between 1857F and 2057F (850C-960C.) Because
simmering temperatures are slightly higher than those used for poaching,
there should be more action on the liquids surface, with a few air bubbles
breaking through. As with poaching, the liquid used for simmering has a
great effect on the foods flavor. Be sure to use a well-flavored stock or
broth and to add mire-poix, herbs and seasonings as needed. Simmered foods
should be moist and very tender.
Boiling
Boiling is another moist-heat-cooking method that uses the process of convection
to transfer heat from a liquid to a food. Boiling uses large amounts of
rapidly bubbling liquid to cook foods. The turbulent waters and the relatively
high temperatures cook foods more quickly than do poaching or simmering.
Few foods. however, are cooked by true boiling.
Steaming
Steaming is a moist-heat cooking method that uses the process of convection
to transfer heat from the steam to the food being cooked. The food to be
steamed is placed in a basket or rack above a boiling liquid. The food should
not touch the liquid; it should be positioned so that the steam can circulate
around it. A lid should be placed on the steaming pot to trap the steam
and also create a slight pressure within the pot that speeds the cooking
process. The liquid used to steam the food is sometimes used to make a sauce
served with the item.
Another type of steaming uses a convection steamer. Convection steamers
use pressurized steam to cook food very quickly in an enclosed chamber.
Convection steamer cooking does not result in a flavored liquid that can
be used to make a sauce.
Combination Cooking Methods
Some cooking methods employ both dry-heat and moist-heat cooking techniques.
The two principal combination methods are braising and stewing. In both
methods, the first step is usually to brown the main item using dry heat.
The second step is to complete cooking by simmering the food in a liquid.
Combination methods are good for less tender but flavorful cuts of meat.
Braising
Braised foods benefit from the best qualities of both dry- and moist-heat
cooking methods. Foods to be braised are usually large pieces that are first
browned in a small amount of fat at high temperatures. As with sautéing,
heat is transferred from the pan to the food mainly by the process of conduction.
Vegetables and seasonings are added, and enough sauce or liquid is added
to come one third to one half way up the item being cooked. The pan is covered,
and the heat is reduced. The food is then cooked at low heat, using a combination
of simmering and steaming to transfer heat from the liquid (conduction)
and the air (convection) to the food. This can be done on the stovetop or
in the oven. A long, slow cooking period helps tenderize the main item.
Braised foods are usually served with a sauce made from the cooking liquid.
Stewing
Stewing also uses a combination of dry- and moist-heat cooking methods.
Stewing is most often associated with smaller pieces of food that are first
cooked either by browning them in a small amount of fat or oil, or by blanching
them in a liquid. Cooking is then finished in a liquid or sauce. Stewed
foods have enough liquid added to cover them completely and are simmered
at a constant temperature until tender. Cooking time is generally shorter
for stewing than for braising because the main items are smaller. Blanch-to
very briefly and partially cook a food in boiling water or hot fat; used
to assist preparation (for example, to loosen peels from vegetables, as
part of a combination cooking method or to remove undesirable flavors.
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| THE PROPERLY EQUIPPED KITCHEN
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You don't have to be a great chef, or gourmand, to have a properly equipped
kitchen. There's nothing worse than being in the middle of preparing a wonderful
meal when you realize that you don't have what you need. So, here's our basic
kitchen list.
Utensils
- Mixing Bowls - 4 in assorted sizes
- Measuring Spoons - set
- Cup, Plastic or Glass for liquid measuring
- Measuring Cups - set for dry measuring
- Instant Read Thermometer
- Stainless Steel Wire Whisk
- Soup Ladle
- Grater
- Potato Masher
- Long-handled Fork
- Bulb Baster
- Bottle Opener
- Can Opener
- Corkscrew
- Stainless Steel Slotted Spoon - long-handled
- Wooden Spoons - 3 long-handled
- Stainless Steel Spoons - 2 long-handled
- Rubber Spatulas - 2 flexible
- Wire-mesh Strainers - 2
- Stainless Steel Colander
- Rotary Egg Beater
- Kitchen Tongs
- Meat Pounder
- Funnel
- Vegetable Peeler
- Kitchen Timer
- Pepper Grinder
- Sturdy Wood Chopping Board
- Salad Spinner
Knives
- Paring Knives - 2, 3-1/2" or 4"
- Chef's Knife
- Carving Knife
- Serrated Bread Knife
- Boning Knife
- A sharpening steel.
Buy the best knives you can afford and keep them in a wood block for safety. Take
good care of them, keep them sharp and they'll give you years and years of use.
Electrical Equipment
Let's not get fancy. Some good simple appliances will be more than enough. Have
a good quality blender, a kitchen scale, an electric hand mixer and a toaster.
Baking Equipment
- Round Cake Pans - 2, 8" or 9" round
- Square Baking Pan
- Loaf Pans - 2
- Baking Sheets - 2, rimless
- Ovenproof Glass Pie Plate
- Muffin Tins - 2
- Tart Pans
- Rolling Pin
- Wire Rack
- Pastry Brush
- Cookie Cutters - one set
- Pastry Bag - with decorating tips
- Pastry Scraper
Pots and Pans
- Pots - 3, small medium and large
- Sauce Pots - 2
- Stock Pot with tight-fitting lid
- Vegetable Steamer
- Frying Pans - 2, better with lids
- Dutch Oven with lid
- Shallow Roasting Pan
- Ceramic Baking Dishes - 3, assorted sizes
- Large Roasting Pan with rack
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| COMMON KITCHEN MEASURES |
| Pinch (a few grains) |
less than 1/8 teaspoon |
| 3 teaspoons |
1 tablespoon |
| 2 tablespoons |
1 fluid ounce |
| 4 tablespoons |
1/4cup |
| 5 tablespoons + 1 teaspoon |
1/3 cup |
| 16 tablespoons |
1 cup |
| 1 cup |
1/2 pint or 8 fluid ounces |
| 2 cups |
1 pint |
| 2 pints |
1 quart |
| 4 quarts |
1 gallon |
| 2 dry pints |
1 dry quart |
| 8 dry quarts |
1 peck |
| 4 peck |
1 bushel |
| COOKING MEASUREMENTS ABBREVIATIONS |
| Measure |
Abbreviation |
| Degrees |
C |
| Degrees Fahrenheit |
F |
| Fluid ounce |
fl. Oz |
| Gram |
gcUS |
| Kilogram |
kg |
| Liter |
l |
| Milligram |
mg |
| Milliliter |
ml |
| Ounce |
oz. |
| Pint |
pt. |
| Pound |
lb. |
| Quart |
qt. |
| Tablespoon |
tbsp. |
| Teaspoon |
sp. |
| METRIC COOKING MEASURE EQUIVALENTS |
| Customary |
Metric |
| 1 teaspoon |
4.9 milliliters |
| 1 tablespoon |
14.8 milliliters |
| 1 ounce (dry) |
28.35 grams |
| 1 fluid ounce |
29.57 milliliters |
| 1 cup |
236.6 milliliters |
| 1 pint |
473.2 milliliters |
| 1 quart |
946.4 milliliters |
| 0.9 quart (dry) |
1 liter |
| 1.06 quarts (liquid) |
1 liter |
| 1 pound |
454 grams |
| 2.2 pounds |
1 kilogram |
| 32 Fahrenheit |
0 Celcius (freezing point) |
| 212 Fahrenheit |
100 Celsius (boiling point) |
| FOOD WEIGHTS AND MEASURES |
| Bread |
| 1-pound loaf |
12 to 16 slices |
| 1 slice |
1/2 cup soft or 1/4 cup dry Bread crumbs |
| Dairy |
| 1 pound cheese |
4 to 5 cups, shredded |
| 1 pound cottage cheese |
2 cups |
| 3 ounces cream cheese |
6 tablespoons |
| 8 ounces cream cheese |
1 cup |
| 1 pound butter |
2 cups (4 sticks) |
| 1 quart milk |
4 cups |
| 1 pound instant nonfat dry milk |
5 quarts liquid skim milk |
| 13-ounces can evaporated milk |
1 2/3 cups |
| ½ pint cream |
1 cup |
| 1 cup heavy cream |
2 cups, whipped |
| Eggs |
| 3 to 4 |
1 cup |
| 8 to 10 whites |
1 cup |
| 12 to 14 yolks |
1 cup |
| 1 yolk |
2 tablespoons |
| Flour |
| 1 pound all-purpose flour |
4 cups, sifted |
| 1 pound cake flour |
4 3/4 to 5 cups, sifted |
| 1 pound whole-wheat flour |
3 1/2 to 3 1/4 cups unsifted |
| 1 pound cornmeal |
3 cups |
| Fruit |
| Juice of 1 medium lemon |
2 to 3 tablespoons |
| Juice of 1 medium orange |
1/3 to1/2 cup |
| Granted rind of medium Orange |
1 tablespoon |
| 1 apple |
1 cup, sliced |
| 1 pound apples |
3 cups, pared and sliced |
| 3 to 4 bananas (1 pound) |
1 3/4 cups, mashed |
| 1 pound cherries |
2 cups, pitted |
| 1 pound cranberries |
2 cups |
| 1 pound grapes |
2 1/2 cups, seeded |
| 1 pound raisins |
2 1/2 cups |
| 1 pound cut candied fruit |
3 cups |
| 1 pound finely cut dates |
1 1/2 cups |
| MEAT AND POULTRY |
| 1 pound ground cooked meat |
5 cups |
| 1 pound diced cooked meat |
5 cups |
| 3 1/2-pound chicken |
3 cups diced,cooked |
| NUTS |
| 1 pound almonds in shell |
1 1/4 cups, shelled |
| 1 pound pecans in shell |
2 cups, chopped |
| 1 pound walnuts in shell |
1 1/2 to 1 3/4 cups, chopped |
| 1/4 pound chopped nuts |
about 1 cup |
| SWEETENERS AND FLAVORINGS |
| 1 pound confectioner's sugar |
3 1/2 cups |
| 1 pound brown sugar |
2 1/4 to 2 1/2 cups, firmly packed |
| 1 pound granulated sugar |
2 cups |
| 1 pound honey, molasses, syrup |
1 1/3 cups or syrup |
| 1 pound cocoa |
4 cups |
| 1 ounce unsweetened chocolate |
1 square |
| 6-ounce package chocolate chips |
1 cup |
| VEGETABLES |
| 1 whole bay leaf |
1/4 teaspoon, crushed |
| 1 pound split peas |
2 1/2 cups |
| 1 large green pepper |
1 cup, diced |
| 1/4 pound sliced mushrooms (1 1/4 cup) |
1/4 to 1/2 cup, cooked |
| 1 medium onion |
1/2 cup, chopped |
| 1 pound potatoes (3 medium) |
2 1/2 cups, sliced |
| 1 pound green beans (3 cups) |
1/2 cups, cooked |
| 1 pound cabbage |
2 1/2 cups, cooked |
| 1 pound carrots |
2 1/2 cups, diced, or 2 cups, cooked |
| 1 medium bunch celery |
4 1/2 cups, chopped |
| 1 pound tomatoes (3 medium) |
1 1/2 cups, cooked |
| FOOD SUBSTITUTIONS |
| Ingredient |
Substitute |
| Baking powder (1 teaspoon) |
1/4 teaspoon baking soda + 1/2 teaspoon cream of tartar |
| Baking powder (1 1/4 teaspoons) |
1/2 teaspoon baking soda + 2 tablespoons vinegar |
| Black pepper |
White pepper or paprika |
| Bouillon (1 cup) |
1 bouillon cube dissolved in 1 cup hot water |
| Bread crumbs (1 cup) |
3/4 cup cracker crumbs |
| Butter (1 cup) |
1 cup margarine or 1 cup Vegetable shortening Or 7/8 cup lard |
| Buttermilk or sour milk (1 cup) |
1 cup yogurt or 1 cup whole milk + 1 tablespoon lemon juice or 1
tablespoon vinegar or 1 ¾ teaspoons cream of tartar |
| Carrots |
Parsnips or baby white turnips |
| Chocolate Semisweet (1 2/3 ounces) |
1 ounce unsweetened chocolate + 4 teaspoons sugar |
| Unsweetened (1 ounce - 1 square) |
3 tablespoons cocoa powder + 1 tablespoon shortening |
| Cream,heavy (1 cup) |
7/8 cup buttermilk or Yogurt + 3 tablespoons Butter |
| Croutons |
Cubes of crustless white Bread sautéed in butter |
| Curry powder |
Tumeric plus cardamom, ginger power, and cumin |
| Dry mustard |
Prepared mustard |
| Egg, for thickening or baking |
2 egg yolk |
| Flour, All-purpose, for Thickening |
1 1/2 teaspoons cornstarch or 1 1/2 teaspoons Arrowroot or 1 tablespoon
Quick-cooking tapioca |
| All-purpose, for Bread baking |
Up to 1/2 cup bran, whole-wheat flour, or Cornmeal + enough all-purpose
flour to fill cup |
| Cake (1 cup sifted) |
1 cup minus 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour |
| Fresh herbs (1 tablespoon) |
1/3 to 1/2 teaspoon dried herbs |
| Honey (1 cup) |
1 1/4 cups sugar + ¼ cup liquid |
| Lemon juice |
Vinegar or lime juice or White wine |
| Mayonnaise, homemade (1/2 cup) |
1/2 cup commercial mayonnaise +1/2 teaspoon lemon juice + 1/2 teaspoon
prepared mustard |
| Olive oil |
Vegetable oil |
| Onion, chopped (1 cup) |
1 tablespoon instant minced onion, reconstituted |
| Parsley |
Chevril |
| Scallions |
Green or white onions, Or onion powder to taste |
| Shallots |
2 parts onions, + 1 part garlic |
| Sugar, granulated (1 tablespoon) |
1 tablespoon maple sugar |
| Sugar, granulated (1 cup) |
1 1/3 cups confectioners' sugar or 1 cup molasses + 1/2 teaspoon
baking soda |
| Tomato sauce (2 cups) |
3/4 cup tomato paste + 1 cup water |
| Wine vinegar |
Cider vinegar with a little red wine or White distilled vinegar with
a little white wine |
| Yeast, active dry |
1 3/5 - ounce cake yeast (1 tablespoon - 1 package) |
| KOSHER SUBSTITUTES |
| According to Jewish dietary laws, certain food items, such as pork
products, shellfish, and some cuts of beef, are not allowed to be eaten.
Also, meat and dairy products are not to be eaten at the same time.
Below is a list of ingredients that may be problematic in preparing
a Kosher dish. On the right are acceptable replacements for these items.
|
| Ingredients |
Substitute |
| Butter |
In pastry: all-vegetable margarine or vegetable shortening |
| Butter |
To sauté vegetables: all-vegetable margarine |
| Butter |
To fry meat or poultry: equal parts rendered chicken fat and oil:
oil: equal parts oil and vegetable margarine |
| Ham or bacon |
Used as flavoring: an equal quantity of anchovies, mushrooms, or
pungent vegetables |
| Milk or cream |
In chicken stew, soup, or sauce for each ½ cup, ½ cup chicken stock
missed with 1 egg yolk and 1 teaspoon cornstarch. |
| Milk or cream |
In pancakes: an equal quantity of water, 1 tablespoon oil for each
cup of flour, and twice as many eggs. |
| Shellfish |
An equal amount of firm fish that has both fins and scales |
| LOW-FAT SUBSTITUTES |
Without changing your diet, you can significantly reduce your intake
of fat by making the following substitutions for basic ingredients:
|
| Ingredients |
Substitution |
| Baker's chocolate unsweetened |
for each ounce, 1/4cup cocoa powder + 2 tsp. margarine |
| Butter |
on vegetables and popcorn: butter substitute such as butter buds
|
| Butter |
for sautéing onions and garlic: nonstick cooking spray and broth
in a nonstick pan To prevent burning: Chicken broth |
| Crème fraiche |
Plain low-fat yogurt |
| Eggs |
For scrambled eggs and omelettes: egg substitute such as egg beaters |
| Eggs |
for baking: 2 egg whites for 1 egg; 3 egg whites or 1 egg and 1 white
for 2 eggs |
| Heavy cream |
for whipped cream; substitute cool whip or low-fat whipped cream
in a spray can |
| Heavy cream |
for cooking: replace 1/2 cup cream with 1 tbsp. butter buds combined
with 1/3 cup skim milk |
| Roux |
Use cornstarch, arrowroot, or pureed vegetables, or make the roux
with 1 tbsp. butter buds and 1/3 cup skim milk instead of the butter |
| Sour cream |
Plain low-fat yogurt or 1 cup low-fat cottage cheese combined with
2 tbsp. skim milk and 1 tbsp. lemon juice in the blender |
| Whole Milk |
Skim or Low-fat milk |
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COPYRIGHT©2005 VICTORIA PACKING CORP. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
( CTR-110505-KIT)
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